2007年7月WTO对巴林王国贸易政策审议-WTO秘书处报告(英文)

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World Trade Organization	RESTRICTED

	WT/TPR/S/185 13 June 2007
	(07-2436)

Trade Policy Review Body

TRADE POLICY REVIEW

Report by the Secretariat

BAHRAIN

This report, prepared for the second Trade Policy Review of Bahrain, has been drawn up by the WTO Secretariat on its own responsibility. The Secretariat has, as required by the Agreement establishing the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization), sought clarification from Bahrain on its trade policies and practices.

Any technical questions arising from this report may be addressed to Mr. Jacques Degbelo (tel: 022/739 5583), or Mr. Ricardo Barba (tel: 022/739 5088), or Mr. Samer Seif El Yazal (tel: 022/739 5459), or Mr. Carlos Perez del Castillo (tel: 022/739 5336).

Document WT/TPR/G/185 contains the policy statement submitted by Bahrain.

Note: This report is subject to restricted circulation and press embargo until the end of the first session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review Body on Bahrain.

CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY OBSERVATIONS vii

(1) The Economic Environment vii

(2) Institutional Framework vii

(3) Trade Policy Instrument viii

(4) Sectoral Policies ix

(5) Trade Policy and Trading Partners x

I. Economic environment 1

(1) Major Features of the Economy 1

(2) Recent Economic Developments 2

(3) Trade Performance and Investment 4

(i) Trade in goods and services 4

(ii) Foreign direct investment 7

(4) Outlook 8

II. trade and Investment regimes 10

(1) The Institutional Framework 10

(2) Trade Policy Formulation and Implementation 11

(3) Policy Objectives 14

(4) Trade Agreements 14

(i) WTO 14

(ii) Regional agreements 17

(iii) Bilateral agreements 18

(iv) Other preferential agreements 18

(5) Investment Framework 19

III. trade policies and practices by measure 22

(1) Introduction 22

(2) Measures Directly Affecting Imports 22

(i) Registration and documentation 22

(ii) Customs procedures and valuation 23

(iii) Rules of origin 24

(iv) Tariffs, other duties, and taxes 24

(v) Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing 28

(vi) Contingency trade remedies 30

(vii) Standards and other technical requirements 30

(viii) Government procurement 34

(ix) Local-content requirements 36

(x) Other measures 36

(3) Measures Directly Affecting Exports 36

(i) Registration and documentation 36

(ii) Export duties and taxes 36

(iii) Export prohibitions and restrictions 36

Page

(iv) Export subsidies, finance, insurance, and assistance 37

(v) Free zones 38

(4) Measures Affecting Production and Trade 38

(i) Incentives 38

(ii) Competition policy and price controls 39

(iii) State-owned enterprises and privatization 39

(iv) Intellectual property rights 41

IV. trade policies by sector 47

(1) Introduction 47

(2) Agriculture and Related Activities 47

(i) Main features 47

(ii) Agricultural policy 49

(iii) Fisheries 50

(3) Mining, Quarrying and Energy 52

(i) Overview 52

(ii) Petroleum 54

(iii) Natural gas 56

(iv) Electricity 57

(4) Manufacturing 58

(i) Main features 58

(ii) Policy framework 58

(iii) Aluminium 59

(5) Services 61

(i) Overview 61

(ii) Financial services 62

(iii) Telecommunications and postal services 68

(iv) Transport 72

(v) Tourism 76

REFERENCES 79

appendix tables 83

CHARTS

Page

I. Economic environment

I.1 Structure of merchandise trade, 1995-06 6

III. trade policies and practices by measure

III.1 Breakdown of applied MFN duties, 2007 25

III.2 Tariff escalation by ISIC 2-digit industry, 2007 27

IV. trade policies by sector

IV.1 Bahrain's MFN tariff by ISIC classification, 2007 60

TABLES

I. Economic environment

I.1 Bahrain at a glance 1

I.2 Selected economic indicators, 2000-06 3

I.3 Balance of payments, 2000-06 5

I.4 Foreign direct investment, 2000-06 7

II. trade and investment regimes

II.1 Main trade-related laws in Bahrain, March 2007 13

II.2 Bahrain's selected notifications to the WTO, as of March 2007 15

II.3 Bilateral investment treaties, March 2007 21

III. trade policies and practices by measure

III.1 Structure of MFN tariffs in Bahrain, 2002 and 2007 25

III.2 Summary analysis of Bahrain MFN tariff, 2007 26

III.3 Prohibited imports, 2007 29

III.4 Restricted imports, 2007 29

III.5 Import controls, 2007 31

III.6 Government procurement, 2002-06 35

III.7 Prohibited exports, 2007 36

III.8 Restricted exports, 2007 37

III.9 Selected state-owned enterprises, 2007 40

III.10 Summary of IPR legislation in Bahrain 42

IV. trade policies by sector

IV.1 Livestock, poultry, and fisheries production, 1999-05 48

IV.2 Vegetable crops production, 1999-05 49

IV.3 Production, consumption and exports of oil, gas, and refined products, 2000-06 55

IV.4 BANAGAS gas production and export, 1999-06 56

IV.5 Electricity tariffs, 2007 57

IV.6 Structure of the banking system, December 2006 63

IV.7 Selected telecommunication indicators, 2000-05 68

IV.8 Shipping and maritime transport services, 2000-05 72

IV.9 Air transport serices, 2002-06 74

APPENDIX TABLES

Page

I. Economic environment

AI.1 Structure of exports, including re-exports, 2000-06 85

AI.2 Destinations of exports, including re-exports, 2000-06 86

AI.3 Structure of imports, 2000-06 87

AI.4 Origins of imports, 2000-06 88

III. trade policies and practices by measure

AIII.1 Applied MFN tariff averages by HS2, 2007 89

IV. trade policies by sector

AIV.1 Applied MFN tariffs by ISIC Rev.2 category, 2007 93

AIV.2 Summary of Bahrain's specific commitments in services, 2007 96

SUMMARY OBSERVATIONS

(1) The Economic Environment

1. Since its first TPR in 2000, Bahrain's development strategy, together with high world oil prices, has resulted in an impressive economic performance. Its real GDP growth rate rose from an annual average of 4.8% during 1989-98 to 6.2% over 2000-06, while its annual average inflation rate was contained at 0.3%, on average, during 2000‑04, before moving to 2.6% in 2005 and 2.1% in 2006, reflecting increased demand. Largely due to a significant surge in oil and gas earnings, the external current account has recorded surpluses since 2000, with the exception of 2002, peaking at an estimated 18.1% of GDP in 2006; the overall public deficits of 3.9% of GDP in 2002 and 2% in 2003 turned into surpluses thereafter. Bahrain's external debt remains manageable, although it increased from 4.3% of GDP in 2000 to 9.9% of GDP in 2005.

2. Bahrain is endowed with smaller oil resources than its neighbours. Awareness of this situation and of the unfavourable agricultural conditions in the region has led Bahrain to adopt a development strategy that has made it one of the most diversified economies in the Gulf. Based on, inter alia, skilled foreign labour, imported inputs, and incentives schemes, the diversification strategy has focused on oil refining, petrochemicals, aluminium and related downstream industries, ship repairing, and a major financial services subsector. Services contribute almost 75% to Bahrain's real GDP, and employ over 50% of the workforce. Manufacturing's share in Bahrain's real GDP is about 13%; the mining and quarrying sector (notably oil and gas) accounts for 12%, while agriculture contributes 0.6%. Nevertheless, despite Bahrain's diversification efforts, oil and gas account for around 70% of both government income and merchandise exports. Bahrain's average annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) doubled from an average of US$458 million a year in the decade to 2000 to an annual average of US$941 million over 2001-06, reaching US$2,915 million in 2006, partly due to its privatization programme.

3. Bahrain has invested in health, education, infrastructure projects, and its Future Generation Fund was launched, in January 2007, to ensure inter-generational economic equity in the exploitation of its non-renewable natural wealth. Bahrain has been implementing measures to improve its investment climate, such as the creation of the one-stop shop, Bahrain Investors' Centre in July 2004 to facilitate the setting-up of business. However, foreign companies remain excluded from investing in certain activities (e.g. road transport of goods and passengers), and their ownership is limited in other sectors. Such restrictions contrast with the 70% share of foreigners in Bahrain's labour force. Bahrain's main economic and social problem seems to be its relatively high unemployment rate (14% of the local labour force), which is why employment is given priority in its economic policy.

4. The Central Bank of Bahrain (CBB) was established on 7 September 2006, replacing the Bahrain Monetary Agency (BMA). The CBB carries out all the tasks previously undertaken by the BMA, but has wider enforcement powers. Pegged to the U.S. dollar since 2001, the Bahraini dinar, the national currency, has remained fairly stable in real terms. Bahrain's high ratio of exports and imports in goods and services to GDP (129% on average during 2002-05) reflects the importance of trade to its economy. Its merchandise exports and imports are dominated by oil and gas products, while the origin and destination of its trade are relatively diversified. Bahrain is, increasingly, a net exporter of services, with a surplus averaging US$417.2 million per year over 2000-06 and peaking at US$696.7 million in 2006; travel services is the main subsector (85% of the total services surplus in 2006).

(2) Institutional Framework

5. Formulation and implementation of Bahrain's trade policy are the responsibility of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (MIC). Depending on the nature of the issue, the MIC consults with relevant ministries and other institutions that also take part directly or indirectly in foreign trade policy formulation and/or implementation, including the Economic Development Board. The private sector provides, on an ad hoc basis, inputs to trade policy formulation through the Chambers of Commerce and Industry. The National Committee, created in 1996 under the supervision of the MIC, deals with WTO-related matters.

6. Bahrain has been reviewing and amending its laws with a view to their conformity with Bahrain's WTO obligations. Several new laws have been introduced since its last TPR, including a revised Commercial Companies Law (2001), a trade remedies law covering anti-dumping, subsidies and countervailing, and safeguards measures, as well as other laws relating to telecommunications, patent and utility modes, trade marks, trade secrets, geographical indications, drawings and industrial designs, and integrated circuits.

7. A Contracting Party to the GATT since 13 December 1993, Bahrain became a founding Member of the WTO on 1 January 1995. Bahrain is neither a signatory nor an observer to any of the WTO's plurilateral agreements. It is a signatory to the WTO's Information Technology Agreement (ITA), and to the Fifth Protocol on financial services. Bahrain has not been involved in any dispute under the WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism, either directly or as a third party. Bahrain grants at least MFN treatment to all its trading partners. It has difficulties in meeting a number of the notifications required by certain WTO Agreements.

8. Bahrain is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), and participates in the Greater Arab Free-Trade Area (GAFTA). In the context of the GCC, negotiations for trade agreements are continuing with, inter alia, the EC, EFTA, MERCOSUR, China, India, Japan, Pakistan, Singapore, and Turkey. Bahrain also has its own bilateral trade agreements, notably with the United States (into force since 1 August 2006). Bahrain became the first country in the region to have such a bilateral agreement, although the other GCC members are also negotiating bilaterally with the United States. GCC Heads of States have agreed that any new preferential agreement concluded by a member would apply pari passu to all members, except for agreements with the United States.

(3) Trade Policy Instruments

9. Bahrain has applied the GCC common external tariff (CET) since 1 January 2003. The adoption of the CET by Bahrain decreased its simple average applied MFN tariff from 7.7% in 2000 to 5.3% in 2007. All rates are ad valorem (except on tobacco), and there are no tariff quotas and no other duties and taxes on imports. Bahrain's exceptions to the GCC CET include alcohol (125%) and tobacco (subject to an alternate tariff, with an ad valorem component of 100%). On the basis of the WTO definition, tariffs average 7.4% in agriculture (down from 7.9% in 2000), and 4.9% on non-agricultural products (7.7% in 2000). Using ISIC (Revision 2) definition, the least tariff protected sector is agriculture with 3.3% (against 4.3% in 2000), followed by mining and quarrying (4.9%, down from 5.2% in 2000), and manufacturing (5.4%, 8% in 2000).

10. On aggregate, Bahrain's tariff displays positive escalation, from first-stage processed products, with an average tariff of 4%, to semi-finished goods, with an average rate of 4.9%, and fully processed products, on which tariffs average 5.8%. Bahrain has bound 72.7% of its tariff lines (all agricultural goods and 67.3% of non-agricultural tariff lines) at rates ranging from 35% to 200%, i.e. an average bound rate of 35.6%; this leaves ample margins for applied tariff increases. It has never taken any anti-dumping, countervailing or safeguard actions. Duty concessions can be granted (including on a selective basis) as part of various investment incentives to, inter alia, encourage economic diversification and promote exports. Extension of the scope of tariff binding commitments, reduction of bound rates, and further tariff rationalization in the light of the structure of the economy should introduce more predictability in the tariff regime, reduce the need for concessions, and ensure further integration of Bahrain into the multilateral trading system.

11. The documentation for all imported products must be authenticated by the Consulate of Bahrain or any Arab Embassy in the country of origin. Bahrain encounters some difficulties, mainly technical, in implementing the provisions of the GCC customs law based on the WTO Agreement on Customs Valuation. Non-tariff measures are maintained on imports and exports, mainly for health, security and moral reasons. Bahrain has largely harmonized its regime on standards and technical regulations with other GCC members.

12. In 2002, Bahrain adopted a new government procurement regime; it still provides for 10% and 5% price preferences for local and GCC products, respectively. Bahrain has no competition legislation per se. It has adopted the provisions on contingency trade remedies contained in the GCC Treaty. During the last few years, Bahrain has made significant progress in enforcing its TRIPS legislation. Nevertheless, software piracy, which has shifted from retail to end-user violations, has been reported as problematic.

(4) Sectoral Policies

14. The services sector is a key component in Bahrain's overall policy of economic diversification; financial services, in particular, have developed strongly over the last few years, serving both the domestic economy and those of its neighbours. In July 2004, Bahrain liberalized its fixed and international telecommunication services. Foreign ownership is allowed in the majority of services subsectors. Nevertheless, provision of certain services, such as road and maritime transport, is restricted to Bahraini nationals. Under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), Bahrain scheduled commitments only in some financial services; it has no MFN exemptions under Article II of the GATS. In the ongoing services negotiations, Bahrain has tabled its revised conditional offer.

15. The mining and quarrying sector, basically petroleum and natural gas, is dominated by several state-owned companies, notably BAPCO and BANAGAS. Bahrain's crude oil production has remained relatively stable over the past few years and reached about 67 million barrels in 2006. It is also a significant importer of crude petroleum, which, along with the local production, is destined mainly for its refinery. The Government is seeking to further develop its petroleum resources either directly or in cooperation with foreign enterprises through production‑sharing agreements. Bahrain also is increasing its electricity network and upgrading the generation capacity in order to meet its growing demand.

16. Bahrain's manufacturing sector is based on its apparent comparative advantage in energy-intensive industries, particularly aluminium. Despite recent privatizations, the State continues to play a significant role in the sector. The Government holds a majority stake or is an important shareholder in some manufacturing companies, notably in ALBA, the main aluminium enterprise. Manufacturing is being promoted partly through investment incentives, including exemption from import duties, reduced electricity tariffs for investors in the sector, and a five-year grace period on rent payment for land in the industrial zones.

17. Bahrain is implementing a 2004-15 plan for sustainable agriculture development to improve production and raise productivity. The main agricultural constraints include a limited availability of good quality soils and water, and unfavourable climate. Bahrain is a net importer of agricultural products. The Government assists agricultural producers mainly by offering subsidies for a number of inputs, such as pesticides, veterinary drugs, machinery services, and irrigation material. Export prohibitions and restrictions apply to some agricultural products, such as live horses, camels, and palm tree offshoot.

(5) Trade Policy and Trading Partners

18. With a generally open and increasingly diversified economy, Bahrain is committed to the multilateral trading system, and it is actively participating in the Doha Development Agenda. Nonetheless, Bahrain needs to bring some elements of its trade regime more up to date and into greater conformity with WTO provisions. Continued reforms, including lifting the remaining impediments to FDI, the adoption of a competition policy, and further improvement of Bahrain's multilateral commitments, both on goods and services, could contribute to better resource allocation, and increase the predictability of its trade regime.

19. Increasingly, a key element in Bahrain's reform process relates to full economic integration under the GCC, including the planned establishment of the monetary union by 2010. Bahrain's membership in the GCC has contributed to GDP growth by improving competition in the economy, but has also detracted it from multilateral efforts, given the increased demand on its limited administrative and negotiating resources. Bahrain's future trade agreements, both at the GCC level and bilaterally, could further complicate this situation. It is therefore important to consider the potentially greater advantages of further market opening on a multilateral basis. Trading partners could help by ensuring that their markets are fully open to goods and services of interest to Bahrain, and by providing more technical assistance.

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